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| Latvia Human Development Report
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Sections:
- Economic Civil Society: The Growth of the Private Sector
- The Media
- Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
- Governmental Reform and the Legacy of "Learned Helplessness"
- Box 5.1 Religious Organizations: A Source of Stability
- Box 5.2 Human Rights in Latvia: The Role of the International Community, the Government, and Non-Governmental Organizations
One major goal of human development is to guarantee every member of society the maximum degree of control over his or her life. In a country such as Latvia, where not too long ago society was subject to totalitarianism -- a theory and practice based on the absolute subjugation of the individual to the state -- the quest for human development is not limited to certain individuals or social groups. To guarantee the opportunities for human development to every member of Latvian society, society as a whole must be transformed from one where the individual is completely subordinated to the state into a society where the individual has the maximum independence to pursue his or her own economic, social and political development, to control his or her own life and to be involved in the societal decisions that affect it. Totalitarianism must be stood on its head -- civil society must take precedence over the state.
In examining the transition from a totalitarian to a civil society, one must ask two basic questions: To what extent have people become independent of the state? To what extent can people influence the state? To make the answers to the first question analytically clearer, we can focus on the three traditional subdivisions of civil society: the economic, the social and the political.
Economic Civil Society: The Growth of the Private Sector
At least theoretically, the extent of economic independence from the state is the easiest to measure with a degree of scientific precision. As land and all the means of production were owned by the state under totalitarianism, a valid measure of growing independence from the state is the growth of the private sector. Unfortunately, there are no accurate measures of the percentage contributed to gross domestic product by private enterprise: the Latvian State Statistical Committee calculated it at 58% in 1994, basing this figure on the number of people employed in the private sector. As can be seen in Figure 5.1, the private sector has been growing steadily since 1992.Figure 5.1 (Click here to see a text-only version)
Historically and culturally the family farmstead has been a symbol of economic independence for Latvians. Thus, it is not surprising that a significant spur to independent economic activity has been the privatization of collective farms. Even before independence the government gave collective farms the right to lease land and equipment to individual farmers, and in 1991 the legislature passed a law setting in motion full-scale agrarian reform aimed at dismantling collectivized agriculture. As a result, the number of individual family farms burgeoned from 7518 in 1990 to 57,510 in 1993. Of course, many of these family farms have barely gotten off the ground. Nevertheless, their growing number indicates the desire of many people to take their economic fate into their own hands.
Another measure of economic independence from the state is the growth in private ownership, which has not kept pace with the explosion of independent economic activity. The growth in land ownership has been slow: as of February, 1995, only 13,991 plots of land, totaling 197,805 hectares (about 3% of Latvia's total land area), had been registered in the land register. 7891 buildings were denationalized from 1992 to 1994. The privatization of large enterprises is only just beginning. It is widely believed that the picture is better with regard to small enterprises such as shops and restaurants, but in fact less than a third of these have actually been sold to private owners -- the rest are either leased out or run directly by municipal governments.
Nevertheless, one kind of property ownership has grown rapidly: the share of privately owned apartments and houses increased by more than 50% from 1990 to 1993, when privately owned housing reached 42% of the total available housing space in Latvia. Moreover, the acceleration of privatization by means of vouchers (sertifikati) promises to considerably increase the number of those who own either real estate (mainly cooperative apartments) or shares in privatized enterprises. Taking into account the significant role of the "gray economy," which does not appear in official statistics, even the above-mentioned figures almost certainly understate the degree to which private initiative has become the basis of economic life in Latvia.
Of course, the shadow economy should not be idealized simply because it is private: workers therein do not pay taxes and are often involved in illegal activities. Freedom must be balanced with responsibility, and lawless freedom for some inevitably leads to oppression and poverty for others. True freedom, which enhances everyone's human development, can only exist within the framework of the rule of law. This is vividly illustrated by the fact that as the state has retreated from many spheres of economic life, its place has been taken not by the independent initiative of law-abiding citizens but by the extortion and racketeering of organized crime. Many people see this problem as pervasive, and some estimates put the proportion of businesses that pay "protection money" as high as 95% (see the Chapter on Rising Crime). As was recognized in the global 1994 UNDP Human Development Report, threats from individuals or gangs are one of the factors undermining human development.
The Media
The life-blood of civil society is the free exchange of information, and in this context it is pertinent to mention a very special kind of private enterprise with a distinctive social function -- the media. The growth in the number of media outlets since the collapse of the totalitarian system has been vast. Since 1 January 1991, 1674 publications, 22 radio stations (of which 11 operate outside of Riga) and 34 television stations (of which 16 operate outside of Riga) have been registered in Latvia. Direct interference by the national government -- censorship -- no longer exists. At the national level all the major newspapers and some nationally broadcast TV channels are privately owned. However, the state still plays a role in the media. At the national level the main TV and radio broadcasts have yet to be completely transformed from state broadcasters, responsible to the political powers-that-be, to public broadcasters with institutional safeguards to prevent direct political interference. At the local level, most regional newspapers are owned by the local governments. If people are to be truly empowered, the flow of information must be free from even potential government interference not only at the national, but also at the local level. While censorship no longer limits freedom of expression, the existence of a multiplicity of information outlets is increasingly threatened by Latvia's unsteady economy, which has cast doubt on the future viability of some media outlets and created difficulties for some publishers and broadcasters in maintaining financial independence.If the table below is unreadable, Click here to see preformatted version
| Table 5.2 Largest National Newspapers and Estimated Circulation, March 1995 | ||
|---|---|---|
| Newspaper | Circulation | |
| Weekday | Saturday | |
| Lauku Avize (biweekly, Latvian) | 125,000 | 130,000 |
| Vakara Zinas (daily, Latvian) | 70,000 | 77,000 |
| Diena (daily, Latvian) | 58,000 | 88,000 |
| Neatkariga Cina (daily, Latvian) | 50,000 | 60,000 |
| Rigas Balss (daily, Latvian) | 34,000 | 43,000* |
| Labrit(daily, Latvian) | 23,000 | 23,000 |
| SM-Segodnya (daily, Russian) | 57,000 | 63,000 |
| Panorama Latvii (daily, Russian) | 27,000 | 30,000 |
| Rigas Balss (daily, Russian) | 17,000 | 24,000 |
| Diena (daily, Russian) | 16,000 | 23,000 |
| Labrit (daily, Russian) | 5,000 | 5,000 |
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
If private economic enterprise and property ownership are relatively easy to quantify, social activity -- the voluntary association of individuals in pursuit of common interests -- is slightly more difficult to measure. Because Latvian law requires all social organizations to be registered by the Ministry of Justice, some basic numbers are available.If the table below is unreadable, Click here to see preformatted version
| Table 5.3 Registered Social Organizations in Latvia, March 1995 | |
|---|---|
| Social organizations | 984 |
| Open social funds | 185 |
| Sports associations | 412 |
| Trade unions | 95 |
| Total | 1676 |
As can be seen in Table 5.3, the total number of voluntary organizations in Latvia is 1676, or approximately one for every 1500 inhabitants. Unfortunately, information about these organizations has yet to be computerized and therefore has not been analyzed according to such parameters as number of members, geographical distribution, date of registration, or break-down along professional, social or ethnic lines (see Boxes 5.1 and 5.2). However, some insight into ethnic organizations can be gained from the Latvian Association of National Cultural Organizations, an umbrella organization for 20 cultural societies. The largest among them are the Jewish and the Polish societies with approximately 4000 and 3000 members, respectively.
A measure of an individual's political independence from the state is his/her ability to form associations to pursue political goals. Although small groups of dissidents were active in Latvia throughout the 1970's and early 1980's, mass political activity outside the strictures of the Communist Party really only began in 1986 with the petition and letter-writing campaign against the environmentally dangerous Daugava hydroelectric station. Over the next two years political participation increased exponentially, and by the fall of 1988 the newly founded Latvian Popular Front could claim between two and three hundred thousand members. Mass participation in politics remained strong until 1991, when Latvia regained its independence. Since then it has shriveled away as quickly as it grew. Economic problems have taken precedence over the politics of national liberation, and the stifling practices of the Communist Party have made most people averse to organized political activity of any kind. At this writing, there were 43 officially registered political organizations in Latvia. None of them has an active membership of more than 3,500.
Civil society, a society of independent individuals pursuing their economic, social, and political goals in an organized fashion, is growing. But to what extent are people only recently freed from the control and paternalism of the totalitarian state ready to turn around and make the state work for them? There are two sides to this question: the first deals with the efforts made by the state to transform itself, the second with the psychological changes necessary for people to understand the new possibilities available to them.
Governmental Reform and the Legacy of "Learned Helplessness"
Since 1993 the Latvian government has taken important steps to transform the state. It has established the Ministry for State Reform and started to develop and enact changes in state administration aimed at making the state subject to society. Concrete steps taken in this direction are the decentralization of power, endowing local governments with more rights and responsibilities; reform of the state administration, clearly defining the role of the civil service as apolitical and service-oriented; the development of standards of ethical conduct for civil servants and elected officials; and the launching of a programme to inform Latvia's residents of their rights. Although there are still problems with implementation, every ministry is now required to consult the relevant social organizations when preparing a law or decree. Certain ministries, such as the Ministry of Welfare, are consciously working to strengthen the role of social organizations by organizing forums and consultative committees that give these groups the opportunity to be heard regularly. There is even one social organization, the Union of Local Governments, which the government is required by law to consult on any draft law or decree that affects its members.Nevertheless, there is a certain paradox here, best caught in a phrase in the draft Conception for the Reform of the Latvian State Administration: "The reform of the state administration must encourage society to be more self-confident" (emphasis in the original), i.e., the state must convince people to exercise greater control over the state. It may seem counter-intuitive, but the problem addressed here by state reformers is real, for the psychological burden of dependence created by the previous totalitarian society is a significant hindrance to the development of a civil society.
Human development cannot be imposed on individuals or a society; the urge for it must come from within. However, the evidence indicates that it will be some time before a large part of Latvian society is ready to step into the gap left by the receding state and assume new responsibilities. While no comprehensive studies of this question have been carried out, there are studies which cast light on the phenomenon. In one survey conducted in late 1993, 59% of ethnic Latvians and 67% of non-Latvians said that they had not taken any concrete steps in the last two years to improve their standard of living. Moreover, 47% of Latvians and 58% of non-Latvians agreed with the statement that the state should be responsible for providing for every household. A prominent Canadian-Latvian psychologist describes the effects of the Soviet system as a syndrome called "learned helplessness."
Naturally enough, if people do not possess the psychological tools necessary to develop their own lives, they will not be able to play an active role in society either. Such passivity cannot serve the cause of strengthening civil society or furthering human development. Nonetheless, there are signs of hope. After all, in the above-mentioned survey 46% of Latvians and 35% of non-Latvians agreed with the statement that individuals should take responsibility for themselves. A leading sociologist notes the markedly optimistic and motivated attitude of people under 30, who see the new society as offering them great opportunities for development. Moreover, there are organizations taking steps to teach people to take control of their lives. As mentioned above, one such organization is the Ministry of State Reform, which has launched an extensive programme to raise people's awareness of their rights by distributing booklets on topics such as how to receive child support and by broadcasting commercials about the system of taxation. A leading non-governmental organization active in this field is the Center for the Advancement of Democracy in Latvia, which has developed a course in civics to be taught in the 9th grade. In 1994, the first year of the programme, the Centre distributed the materials for this course free of charge in 789 schools, that is, more than half of all Latvian-language schools, and is planning to do the same in Russian-language schools during the next school year.
The legacy of "learned helplessness," of economic, social and political dependency will not be erased overnight; civil society will not be built in a day. Time, commitment, and considered policy will be required to achieve the goal of a society where all can achieve the maximum in human development.
Box 5.1 Religious Organizations: A Source of Stability
A key feature of human development is spiritual and ethical growth, which since time immemorial has been fostered by religious organizations. Since the collapse of the totalitarian policy of state-sponsored atheism, the number of religious organizations has increased by over 30% (see table 5.4).If the table below is unreadable, Click here to see preformatted version
| Table 5.4. Number of Religious Congregations in Latvia, 1939, 1989 and 1994 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Confession | 1939 | 1989 | 1994 |
| Lutheran | 319 | 202 | 291 |
| Catholic | 194 | 182 | 192 |
| Orthodox | 166 | 86 | 100 |
| Old Believer | 88 | 64 | 56 |
| Baptist | 108 | 60 | 70 |
| Adventist | 28 | 23 | 33 |
| Pentecostal | * | 2 | 49 |
| Methodist | 27 | - | 3 |
| Reformed | 2 | - | 3 |
| Jewish | 221 | 4 | 5 |
| Other | 12 | - | 18 |
| TOTAL | 1165 | 623 | 819 |
Moreover, the main confessions in Latvia are characterized by mutual tolerance and an ecumenical spirit which is a stabilizing factor in Latvian society. This was especially apparent during the visit by Pope John Paul II to Latvia in September 1993.
Since 1991 religious organizations have started to play a significant role in providing charity to those most heavily affected by the hardships of the economic transition. Most active in this respect are the Baptist congregations, which support 7 missions such as Pakapieni (Steps) and Ora International. The Salvation Army has also helped thousands of families receive clothes, medicine and food.
Religious organizations also play a role in strengthening the cultural heritage of various ethnic groups living in Latvia. Notable in this regard is the community of Russian Old Believers, which has maintained a vibrant culture in Latvia since the 17th century. The largest Old Believer congregation in the world, the Grebenshchikov congregation in Riga, has approximately 25,000 members. Other ethnic groups are only beginning to rediscover their religious traditions: since 1991 12 new congregations have been established, including Armenian Apostolic, Greek Orthodox, and Muslims.
Box 5.2
Human Rights in Latvia: The Role of the International Community, the Government,
and Non-Governmental Organizations
A critical aspect of human development is the promotion and protection of human rights. Since the restoration of independence, Latvia has assumed new treaty obligations, engaged in wide-ranging international cooperation, and witnessed the growth of both government and non-governmental activity in the field of human rights.
The International Framework
When Latvia's parliament declared the restoration of independence on May 4, 1990, it also acceded to 52 international human rights instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In addition to committing itself to global human rights norms, Latvia has also assumed important regional obligations.Latvia joined the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE, now the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe or OSCE) in September 1991. All OSCE member-states are committed to the protection and promotion of human rights and the strengthening of democratic institutions and the rule of law. Since November 1993, Latvia has hosted a long-term OSCE Mission involved in preventive diplomacy. The Mission has assisted in the implementation of the Russian-Latvian agreements concerning the withdrawal of Russian troops and monitored issues related to citizenship.
In February 1995, Latvia gained entry to the Council of Europe. As a Member State, atvia has signed the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. When it ratifies the Convention -- a step that should occur shortly -- Latvia will commit itself to fully accept the Convention's control mechanism and the European Court's compulsory jurisdiction. While international and regional obligations can play an important role in guaranteeing the observance of human rights, even more critical are steps taken at the national level by the government and non-governmental organizations.
Governmental Efforts
The Saeima (parliament) has a Standing Human Rights Committee responsible for reviewing draft legislation pertaining to human rights. Members of the Committee hold office hours every other week and review complaints from the population regarding legislative matters. In April 1994, the post of State Minister for Human Rights was established under the auspices of the Ministry of Justice. The State Minister is responsible for promoting an understanding of human rights in the general public. The lawyer for the State Minister's office also examines complaints from the population and seeks to remedy problems. In May 1994 a government working group on the protection of individual rights was created. It serves as a focal point for coordinating the government's human rights policy and its prime responsibility is to create a mechanism which would guarantee that State structures respect human rights.To further this goal, the Latvian government requested the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to organize a high level international mission to prepare a detailed needs assessment for the preparation of Latvia's National Programme for the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights. The mission, composed of representatives of the United Nations, the OSCE, and the Council of Europe, visited Latvia in July 1994 and prepared a Final Report to serve as a basis for Latvia's National Programme. The Programme, which has been adopted in principle by the government, calls for wide-ranging human rights education, special attention to the protection of the rights of vulnerable groups (children, religious minorities, non-citizens, prisoners, refugees, and people with disabilities), and the creation of an independent Human Rights Office with wide powers. Implementation of the Programme should significantly contribute to promoting human development in Latvia.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a critical role in promoting democratic development and complementing international and government efforts in the realm of human rights protection. The following list illustrates the range of registered NGOs in Latvia involved in human rights work:- The International Society for Human Rights Latvia National Section, active in defending children's rights and the rights of individuals in pre-trial detention, prisons and the armed forces;
- The Latvian Human Rights Committee (a member of the Federation Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l'Homme), involved in assisting individuals on matters related to residency status and citizenship and advising tenants of their rights;
- The Latvian Center for Human Rights and Ethnic Studies, whose mandate includes the compilation, analysis and distribution of information on human rights and ethnic relations, as well as the promotion of education for human rights and tolerance;
- The Baltic Center - Cooperation for Peace, active in human rights education, the popularization of preventive diplomacy and sustainable security, and organizing environmental projects for youth;
- New Human Rights (Nouveaux Droits de l'Homme), which focuses on promoting the rights and independence of invalids, organizing humanitarian assistance, and engaging in environmental projects.